Acabo de ganar la loteria, cierro este blog.
Como pueden ver, me gané la loteria de SudAfrica!!!.
¿Alguién creerá en estas cosas?
FROM: THE LOTTERY COORDINATOR,
INTERNATIONAL PROMOTIONS/PRIZE AWARD DEPARTMENT
Dear Prize Winner,
RESULTS FOR THIRD CATEGORY DRAWS
PROTEA GAMES SOUTH AFRICA wishes to inform you of the results of her
Promotional draws held on the 18th of September, 2004. We are happy to
officially inform you that you have emerged a winner under our Third
Category Draws, which is part of our promotional draws.
Participants were selected through a computer ballot system drawn from
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as part of our International Promotions Program.
You/Your company, attached to ticket number 01-87-436, with serial
number 61-217 drew the lucky numbers 04, 19, 22, 25,34, 36 (20) and
consequently won in the Third category.
You have therefore been awarded a lump sum pay out of USD2,500,000.00
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in the Third category.
CONGRATULATIONS!
Your fund is now deposited with INTERSCOPE FINANCE GROUP insured in your
name. In your best interest and also to avoid mix up of numbers and
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We also wish to bring to your notice our end of year (2004) high stakes
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Please contact your claims agent immediately, to begin your claims process;
PAUL PRESCOTT,
FOREIGN DEPARTMENT MANAGER,
INTERSCOPE FINANCE GROUP.
TEL: +27 828675346
FAX:+27 115076758
EMAIL: pprescott6@ifgsouthafrica.net
For due processing and remittance of your prize money to a designated
account of your choice. Remember, you must contact your claims agent not
later than 27th Sept, 2004, after this date, all funds will be returned
as unclaimed.
for easy reference and identification, Find below your reference and
Batch numbers, remember to always quote these numbers in every one of
your correspondence with your claims agent.
REFERENCE NUMBER: PG3-B6
BATCH NUMBER: GBH-2
Congratulations once again from all our staff and thank you for being
part of our promotions program.
Sincerely,
Mark Fisher,
LOTTERY COORDINATOR
PROTEA GAMES SOUTH AFRICA
65 Everson Street,
Linden - 2104,
Johannesburg,
South Africa.
TEL/FAX: +27 823622669
N.B. Any breach of confidentiality on the part of winners will
result to instant disqualification.
Please do not reply to this mail. Contact your claims agent.
(TERMS AND CONDITION APPLY)
___________________________________________________________________________
Mail sent from WebMail service @ umtscity.de
- http://www.umtscity.de
---
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http://Bioinformatica.info
Resizing and defragmenting Linux filesystems
Title Resizing and defragmenting Linux filesystems
Date 2003.10.13 5:09
Author StoneLion
Topic
http://os.newsforge.com/article.pl?sid=03/10/07/2028234
Last time we talked about a few ways to optimize Linux filesystems. Now
we'll talk about resizing and defragmenting, two other filesystem
operations.
This article is excerpted from the recently published book Linux
Power Tools.
Resizing filesystems
All too frequently, you discover only after installing Linux that your
partitions aren't the optimum size. For instance, you might have too
much room in /usr and not enough room in /home. Traditional fixes for
this problem include using symbolic links to store some directories that
are nominally on one partition on another partition; and backing up,
repartitioning, and restoring data. In many cases, a simpler approach is
to use a dynamic partition resizer. Fortunately, partition resizers
exist for the most popular Linux filesystems, as well, so you can use
these tools to manage your Linux installation.
Dynamic partition resizers are inherently dangerous. In the event of a
power outage, system crash, or bug, they can do serious damage to a
partition. You should always back up the data on any partition you
resize. Also, you should never run a dynamic partition resizer on a
partition that's currently mounted. If necessary, boot a Linux emergency
system to resize your partitions.
Resizing ext2fs and ext3fs
Several tools exist to resize ext2 and ext3 filesystems:
resize2fs This program ships with the e2fsprogs package included with
most distributions. The resize2fs program is fairly basic in terms of
options. At a minimum, you pass it the device file associated with the
partition, as in resize2fs /dev/hda4. This command resizes the
filesystem on /dev/hda4 to match the size of the partition. You can also
pass the partition size in allocation blocks, as in resize2fs /dev/hda4
256000 to resize a filesystem to 256,000 blocks. The resize2fs program
doesn't resize partitions, just the filesystems they contain. Therefore,
you must use resize2fs in conjunction with fdisk to resize a partition
and its filesystem. If you want to shrink a filesystem, you should do so
first and then use fdisk to shrink the partition to match. If you want
to grow a partition, you use fdisk first and then resize2fs. Because
getting filesystem and partition sizes to match is tricky, it's usually
best to forgo resize2fs in favor of GNU Parted or PartitionMagic.
GNU Parted This program provides both filesystem and partition resizing
at once, so it's easier to use than resize2fs. It's described in more
detail shortly, in "Using GNU Parted."
PartitionMagic This commercial program from PowerQuest supports
integrated filesystem and partition resizing operations of FAT, NTFS,
ext2fs, ext3fs, and Linux swap partitions. PartitionMagic is easier to
use than other ext2fs and ext3fs partition resizers, but it runs only
from DOS or Windows. (The package ships with a DOS boot floppy image and
a bootable CD ROM, so it's still useable on a Linux-only system.)
Resizing ReiserFS
Two tools are available for resizing ReiserFS:
resize_reiserfs This tool is ReiserFS's equivalent of the resize2fs
program. Like resize2fs, resize_reiserfs resizes the filesystem, but not
the partition in which it resides, so you must use this tool in
conjunction with fdisk. If you only pass the program the partition
identifier, it resizes the filesystem to fit the partition. If you pass
an -s option and filesystem size, the program resizes the partition to
the requested size, which you can specify in bytes, kilobytes,
megabytes, or gigabytes (the last three options require K, M, or G
suffixes, respectively). Alternatively, you can specify a change to the
partition size by prefixing the size with a minus (-) or plus (+) sign.
For instance, resize_reiserfs -s -500M /dev/sda5 reduces the size of the
filesystem on /dev/sda5 by 500MB.
GNU Parted According to its web page, this program supports ReiserFS as
well as other filesystems. Unfortunately, as of version 1.6.4, this
support is more theoretical than real, because it relies on libraries
that aren't present on most distributions, and that even a fresh build
can't find when everything's installed according to directions. With
luck, though, this support will improve in the future.
The ReiserFS resizing tools are not as mature as are those for resizing
ext2 and ext3 filesystems. In fact, resize_reiserfs displays warnings
about the software being beta.
Resizing XFS
XFS has long included a partition-resizing tool, xfs_growfs. As the name
implies, this program is designed for increasing a filesystem's size,
not decreasing it. Unlike most partition-resizing tools, xfs_growfs is
designed to work only on a mounted filesystem. The safest way to use it
is to unmount the filesystem, delete the partition using fdisk, create a
new partition in its place, mount the filesystem, and then call xfs_growfs:
# xfs_growfs /mount/point
As you might guess, /mount/point is the partition's mount point. You may
also add the -D size option to specify the filesystem size in allocation
blocks. Various other options are also available, as described in the
xfs_growfs man page.
Although GNU Parted's web page doesn't mention XFS support, the source
code does include an XFS subdirectory. Parted refuses to work on XFS
partitions, but this may change in the future.
Resizing JFS
JFS includes a rather unusual partition-resizing ability: It's built
into the kernel's JFS driver. You can use this feature to increase, but
not to decrease, the size of the filesystem. As with most other
partition-resizing tools, you must modify the partition size first by
using fdisk to delete the partition and then recreate it with a larger
size. After you've done this, you should mount the partition as you
normally do and then issue the following command:
# mount -o remount,resize /mount/point
This command resizes the filesystem mounted at /mount/point to occupy
all the available space in its partition. No other partition-resizing
tools are available for JFS, although there is a JFS subdirectory in the
GNU Parted source code, suggesting that Parted may support JFS in the
future.
Using GNU Parted
Because Parted is the most sophisticated open source partition resizer,
it deserves more attention. You can pass it a series of commands
directly or use it in an interactive mode. The latter is more likely to
be helpful for normal one-time uses. Passing commands to Parted enables
you to write scripts to help automate partition resizing. Typically, you
launch Parted in interactive mode by typing the program's name followed
by the device on which you want to operate. You can then type commands
to resize, create, delete, and otherwise manipulate partitions:
# parted /dev/sda
(parted) print
Disk geometry for /dev/scsi/host0/bus0/target5/lun0/disc: 0.000-96.000
megabytes
Disk label type: msdos
Minor Start End Type Filesystem Flags
1 0.023 48.000 primary ext2
2 48.000 96.000 primary ext2
(parted) rm 2
(parted) resize 1 0.00 96.00
(parted) quit
This example deletes the second partition on the disk and resizes the
first partition to fill all the available space. Unlike most Linux
partition-management tools, Parted works in figures of megabytes. This
fact can make translating Parted's partition start and end points to and
from the cylinder boundaries upon which fdisk and other tools work tricky..
Resizing partitions
Most of the filesystem-resizing tools require that you modify the
partition using fdisk. (GNU Parted and PartitionMagic are exceptions to
this rule.) Precisely how you modify the filesystem's carrier partition
depends on whether you'll be shrinking or growing the partition. The
simplest case is growing a partition. When doing this, you should follow
these steps:
1. Launch fdisk on the disk in question.
2. Type d in fdisk to delete the partition you want to grow. You'll be
asked for the partition number.
3. Type n in fdisk to create a new partition in place of the old one.
You'll be asked for the partition number and the start and end
cylinders. The start cylinder must be the same as it was originally, and
of course the end cylinder should be larger than the original.
4. Type w in fdisk to write your changes to disk and exit.
5. Follow the procedure for your filesystem-resizing tool to increase
the filesystem size.
Of course, in order to grow a partition, there must be free space on the
disk into which to expand the partition. This normally means that you'll
have already deleted or shrunk a partition that follows the one you want
to expand. If you want to expand a filesystem into space that's before
it on the disk, your job is much harder. It's possible to expand the
carrier partition as just described, but specifying an earlier starting
point, and then use dd to copy a filesystem from later in the new
partition to earlier in the partition. This task is tricky, though,
because you must compute precisely how far into the newly expanded
partition the existing filesystem begins. An error can easily wipe out
all your data. Thus, I don't recommend attempting this task; instead,
try creating a new filesystem in the earlier space and mount it at some
convenient place in your directory tree. If the empty space is larger
than the partition you want to move, you can create a new partition,
move the original, verify that the copied partition is intact, delete
the original partition, and expand the copied partition and the
filesystem it contains.
In order to reduce the size of the filesystem, you must match the size
of the partition to the filesystem, which can be a tricky task.
Fortunately, there is a procedure that can make this task less error-prone:
1. Shrink the filesystem, using your filesystem-resizing tool, to a
value that's smaller than you intend. For instance, if you want to
shrink a 700MB partition to 500MB, shrink it to 400MB.
2. Use fdisk to resize the partition to the target size, such as 500MB.
This target size should be larger than the filesystem by a wide enough
margin to be comfortable.
3. Use the partition-resizing tool to expand the filesystem into the
extra space on the partition, filling it exactly.
As with increasing the size of the filesystem, the start point of the
filesystem must remain untouched. When moving space between filesystems,
this requirement can create an awkward situation: You can shrink an
earlier partition, but expanding the next partition into the freed space
is risky.
Defragmenting a disk
Microsoft filesystems, such as the File Allocation Table (FAT)
filesystem and the New Technology File System (NTFS), suffer greatly
from disk fragmentation -- the tendency of files to be broken up into
many noncontiguous segments. Disk fragmentation degrades performance
because the OS may need to move the disk head more frequently and over
greater distances to read a fragmented file than to read a nonfragmented
file.
Fortunately, Linux's native filesystems are all far more resistant to
fragmentation than are Windows filesystems. Therefore, most Linux users
don't bother defragmenting their disks. In fact, defragmentation tools
for Linux are hard to come by. One that does exist is called defrag, but
this package doesn't ship with most distributions. Because it is an
older tool, it won't work with most modern ext2fs partitions, much less
any of the journaling filesystems.
If you think your system may be suffering from fragmentation problems,
you can at least discover how fragmented your ext2 or ext3 filesystems
are by performing an fsck on them. You may need to force a check by
using the -f parameter. This action will produce, among other things, a
report on the fragmentation on the disk:
/dev/hda5: 45/8032 files (2.2% non-contiguous), 4170/32098 blocks
This report indicates that 2.2 percent of the files are noncontiguous
(that is, fragmented). Such a small amount of fragmentation isn't a
problem. Unfortunately, the fsck tools for other journaling filesystems
don't return this information, so you have no indicator of fragmentation
on these filesystems. If you truly believe that fragmentation has become
a problem, you may be able to improve matters by backing up the
partition, creating a fresh filesystem, and then restoring the files.
This procedure is likely to take far longer than the time saved in disk
accesses over the next several months or years, though, so I only
recommend doing it if you want to change filesystem types or have some
other reason (such as replacing a hard disk) to engage in this activity.
As a general rule, fragmentation becomes a problem only if your disk is
almost full. On a nearly full disk, Linux may have trouble locating a
large enough block of free space to fit a file without fragmenting it.
If you almost fill a disk and then delete files, the remaining files may
or may not be fragmented, depending on which ones you deleted. For this
reason, keeping your partitions from filling up is best. As a general
rule, anything less than 80 to 90 percent full is fine from a
fragmentation perspective.
Next time we'll finish this series by looking at how to recover files,
either ones that were deleted or ones that were lost as a result of
filesystem corruption.
Links
1. "Last time" -
http://os.newsforge.com/article.pl?sid=03/10/07/1943256&tid=2
